Subculture Groups

It’s hard to choose just one subculture that I belong to. I am a working mother, student and a wife. But if I had to classify just one, I would put myself into the mother category. Being a mother is a hard job, and can’t be taken lightly. It’s a twenty four hour, seven day a week job and is something I would not change for the world. We are commonly called the heroes for being there to take care of the sick, sad or angry child. The taxi driver, because as everyone knows, we are always there to give rides back and forth to whatever activity our kids need.There is also the punisher. If you a mother, you know all about that one, the person who always has to punish because the dad is the majority of the time, the easy going one! There are so many names for our group, and of course, we are the lucky ones of all the groups, because of all the learning, patience and understanding we all gain. Regardless of your background, all mothers would agree that the perception of being a mother thrives on being the best mother you can be to the best of your ability.All mothers share the same values, and that is raising a happy, healthy smart child. Even though at times its tough, and you just want to scream, teaching your kids, feeling the love from your child and nurturing them is what every mother lives off of. As a mother, I have learned that many things. The relationship that I have with my son has taught me understanding. I watch him grow, and realize that all the hard times that I’ve dealt with, and all the pain I’ve gone through, is all worth it.Even though my social life has dwindled, and I barely have time for myself, I find that Many men think that being a mother is an easy job, and some always want to know why we are always so tired (or maybe it’s just my husband). If you are not part of this group, there is no way to understand the feelings, heartache, and worry that constantly stay on our minds. This subculture that Iâ€℠¢ve been apart for the last five years has helped me grow and realize that I’m not alone.I’m so lucky to be a part of this group, and I wouldn’t change it for the world. I stand beside a great group of women, who to me are my heroes. The last five years with my little man have taught me a lot. I’ve learned patience, understanding, and how to love. I’m proud to be a part of this group, and am glad that I always have someone who understands what I go through each day. Mothers stand out in a crowd, and are the toughest women out there!

Effect of Stress on Beet Cells

The Effect of Temperature on Beet Cell Membranes Introduction In this lab, we are going to learn how the stress of temperature affects fresh beets. We have come to learn that cell membranes organize the chemical activities of cells. All cells are made of plasma membranes, often called fluid mosaics. It is sometimes described as a mosaic because it is made of protein molecules that are embedded into phospholipids. Phospholipids are the main structural support of the membrane and the proteins perform most of the functions of a membrane. Together they form boundaries or barriers between the cell itself and its surroundings, like the membrane of an egg. Plasma membranes also control what substances come in and out and also dispose of the cells waste. The membrane itself is composed primarily of phospholipids. Phospholipid molecules have two parts and form a sheet that has two layers, called a bi-layer. They are made up of two fatty acids which make up the tail end and the head is phosphate group. The head of this molecule is hydrophobic, which mean it is attracted to water and their tail is hydrophobic which means they dislike water. Together they form a bobby-pinned shaped barrier. Listed below is my hypothesis for this experiment. I hypothesize that tube 1 at 70 ° c the color intensity of leaked betacyanin will be 10. I hypothesize that tube 2 at 55 ° c the color intensity of leaked betacyanin will be 8. I hypothesize that tube 3 at 40 ° c the color intensity of leaked betacyanin will be 6. I hypothesize that tube 4 at 22 ° c the color intensity of leaked betacyanin will be 0. I hypothesize that tube 5 at 5 ° c the color intensity of leaked betacyanin will be 8. I hypothesize that tube 6 at -5 ° the color intensity of leaked betacyanin will be 10. Method The first thing that I did was label each test tube with numbers 1-6 and listed each corresponding temperature on the label. I cut six pieces of beet in the measurements that were given and rinsed them under tap water for 2 minutes. I then patted them with a paper towel to get off the excess water. I kept the pieces of beet in the paper towel while I got the other items ready. For the cold treatment I put one piece of beet in each beaker (5 and 6) and put tube 5 in the refrigerator and tube 6 in the freezer. I left them in there for 30 minutes. After 30 minutes, I covered each one with the same amount of tap water and let them soak for 20 minutes. After 20 minutes I took each beet out of the test tube, threw the beet away, but saved the colored water so I could chart later. For the room temperature and hot treatments I put each piece of beet into its marked test tube. For tube 1 (70 °c), I had to simmer water to get it to the correct temperature. I put the piece of beat into the beaker of water and waited one minute, I took it out and put it in beaker one, covered it with room temperature water and waited 20 minutes. Beet 2, 3 and 4 were all conducted the same way. I put the correct temperature of water into the beaker, let the beat soak for one minute, took the beet out of the beaker and covered with tap water in the test tube for 20 minutes. After 20 minutes I discarded all the beets so I could record my findings with the colored water that was left behind. Results: From doing this experiment I found that the more stressful environments you subject an item to the differently they act. It is cause and reaction. In tube number one the color intensity leak was at a ten, the highest number on the chart. I found that the heat seemed to open the pores of the beet to let the dye permeate the water. In tube 2 the color was at a 7. The water was still warm enough to allow the dye molecules to pass through the membrane. In tube 3, the water was at 40. This is still warm but not the color was not nearly as intense as the previous tube. The next tube charted was tube number 4. The beet was subjected to a temperature of only 22 °c. That temperature I would chart as â€Å"room temperature†. I found that the least amount of dye was leaked from the beet. For the cold methods I concluded that the amount of betacyanin that escaped from the cell membrane was intense, like the hot treatment results. I concluded that it didn’t have to be hot temperature stress to release betacyanin. Tube number 5 was placed into the refrigerator and the level of dye that permeated the water was charted at a 6. Tube 6 was placed in the freezer and was documented at a level of color intensity of a ten. Also, when the tube was pulled from the freezer the specimen has noticeably changed. It has a slight white, almost white frost or texture to it. Please see attachment and table below. Test Tube numberTreatment  °CColor Intensity (0 – 10) 170 10 255 7 340 5 422 1 55 6 6-5 10 Discussion I believe the result came out the way they did because of level of stress I put the beet through. When damage is done to a cell membrane it affects the entire vegetable. When the beet was put in such hot temperatures the cell membrane started to break down and leak the pigment through the cell wall, since the cell is semi-permeable. Like we spoke about in our text book, the cell membrane lets small molecules to pass through. When the beet was heated to 70 °c or cooled to -5 °c it was subjected to much more stress that at a normal room temperature, which the beet is grown and stored at. The various temperatures make the beet release its pigments. The extreme hot and cold acted as energy for the beet to release the red dye. The structures need to have a stable environment in order to establish their structure. My hypotheses were correct, for the most part. My numbers were not exact, but I had the general idea of what I thought would happen. I thought that the more stress you put on to a beet the great amount of pigment you would receive out of it. I figured that beets were stored at room temperature so if you put them in water that was the same temperature as the room it wouldn’t cause stress on the membrane, hence the least amount of pigment leakage. I was surprised at the amount of pigment that came from the beet. When I first cut the beet the pigment was all over the cutting board and the knife, not to mention by hands. Accuracy is key. Unfortunately, no matter how hard we strive to do things perfectly sometimes there are variables that can affect how the results are derived. In my experiment, I tried to cut each beet with precision. It is almost impossible to cut each beet the exact same and this could have slightly affected how my beets reacted to each session. The larger the surface of the beet the more pigment the beet has in it to release. Another variable could also be the freshness of the beets. My beets where purchased 1200 kilometers and two countries away from where I did the experiment and weren’t extremely firm like they should be. After doing research, I found that the older the beet is the more pigment it has. That could give me not as true of a reading. The last variable I could have experienced was the temperature of the room. The day the experiment was held it was 1 °c outside , so the heater was running full speed all day. I think the experiment could have had more true results if the room was at a more normal temperature. I think while doing the experiment the beets could have dried out slightly from the air in the house being so warm. When working with patients you need to understand the symptoms they have in order to help them. Let’s say I had a man with cancer come into the hospital and I was in charge of monitoring his pain level. If the man was on two different pain medications I would need to know how the two medications worked with each other in order to successfully help him. I would have to know how Morphine worked with Aspirin or how Motrin interacted with Tylenol. Having done this experiment, it has helped me understand how there is cause and effect to everything that we do on a daily basis. If I gave the man 10 cc’s of Motrin I can give him a Fentanyl lozenge later in the day if he is still in pain. That way I keep the side effects, such as nausea, to a minimum without overdoing the amount of morphine I give him. Also doing this experiment has given me the faith in myself to know that I can take action and do experiments, charting, researching and investigation if I want to know why something happens the way it does.

Social Phobia or Social Anxiety Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Social Phobia or Social Anxiety - Research Paper Example According to researchers people suffering from social phobia do have some family history or medical history or any incident that has caused social anxiety and social phobia to be inherent in them. One of the studies clearly shows a survey done on patients who had symptoms of social anxiety according to the results; social phobia patients have somatic symptoms, e.g. weakness in limbs, difficulty in breathing in public dizziness and faintness, etc. These symptoms showed that they already had some biological/physical weakness which was avoided by parents, but has caused strong social anxiety to them. Â  Social phobia patients were also studied in a way of conduct; how they have been conducted or treated in the family. Adolescents were asked about their relationship with their parents. Many of the patients said that they had a strict and a male dominant family; their fathers had a central role and were of the authoritarian nature, and they had an unsatisfactory relationship with their p arents, especially fathers. Â  Also, the study included patients having social phobia who had someone in their family already suffering from it, which showed that it is sometimes inherited, but not true in every case. Thus, we can conclude from the study that social phobia usually starts from mid-teenage and adolescents who are shy and are afraid of socializing are particularly at risk of developing social phobia later in their personality. Children having clingy behavior, crying, aggressiveness and excessive timidity point towards temperament that can possibly put a person at risk of developing social phobia. Some people, having social phobia, point the development of the condition to be ill-treated or socially embarrassed or humiliated. An example of it is students being bullied at school in early ages. Family environment was also a major issue discussed in the development of social phobia. Generally, anxiety disorders run in the family and certain disorders may come from a famil y history of having anxiety disorders or lean attitude or maybe, behavior from family members (Amies, Geldrand and Shaw 1983).

DATABASE SYSTEMS COURSEWORK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

DATABASE SYSTEMS COURSEWORK - Essay Example The relationship type 'has_details' binds the student, invoice and room entities. As the invoice entity has details of both the student and the room and also its own properties needs to be linked with all the three to depict the relation. d. The relationship 'reside' links student and hall entities. As students reside in the hall in a particular room. This conceptual model depicts all the entities and their relations; it gives the overall picture and understanding of the system to a novice. This can also be called a logical model as it does not take into consideration any DBMS in mind and shows the logical association of the system. Next we are constructing the logical system which has the cardinality ratios. A cardinality ratio of a binary relation is the maximum number of instances an entity can participate in a given relationship type. Logical model The logical model is as follows: The difference here is that the entities here are associated with their relationships with the cardinality ratios respectively. The cardinality ratios are derived as follows: 1. Between student and staff (M:N). a. 1 student is responsible to 1 staff b. Many (M) students are responsible to 1 staff. c. 1 staff takes responsibility of 1 student d. Many (M) staff takes responsibility of many students. 2. Between student and hall (N:1). a. 1 student resides in 1 hall. b. Many (M) students reside in 1 hall. c. 1 hall accommodates 1 student d. Many (M) halls do not accommodate 1 student. 3. Between student, hall and invoice (1:1:1). a. 1 invoice has details of 1 student and his hall. b. 1 invoice does not have details of more than 1 student and their halls. c. Many invoices do not have details of many students and different halls. 4. Between student and room (1:1). a. 1 student... This conceptual model depicts all the entities and their relations; it gives the overall picture and understanding of the system to a novice. This can also be called a logical model as it does not take into consideration any DBMS in mind and shows the logical association of the system. Next we are constructing the logical system which has the cardinality ratios. A cardinality ratio of a binary relation is the maximum number of instances an entity can participate in a given relationship type. Special note: The attribute named 'lease' to the relationship named 'rent' has been shifted to the rent table as the cardinality ratio is 1:1 so any attribute of the relationship type must be shifted on either side. The arrows show the functional dependencies. The single arrow with no point head determines all the attributes of the entire entity. In the table 'Responsible_For' which was previously a relationship between student and staff had a cardinality ratio of M:N. The relationship type will form a separate table with the same name having the primary keys of both the aligned tables. a. Only the table 'Room' has an attribute called 'Room Type' which can have both 'single' and 'double' rooms in a particular hall.

Life of galileo lalilei Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Life of galileo lalilei - Research Paper Example His views that the Earth is not the center of the Universe therefore created more resentment and opposition than the work of any other scientist during that era. However, despite the opposition of the mighty, the ideas of Galileo prevailed and the world was able to develop a modern system of astronomy and physics which has evolved and culminated into the current model of science. Society has therefore benefited a lot from his work and how it really shaped the way science as a whole has evolved over the period of time. This paper will therefore argue that Galileo Galilie was a rebel scientist and his ideas and work has greatly changed the way is now progressing. The overall context of his work will also be presented. Galileo Galilie Born in 1564, Galileo became one of the most important scientists in the history of science who laid the foundations for the modern science. During his early life, he seriously considered to become a priest however, due to his father’s insistence he went on to study in the University of Pisa for a medical degree. However, he was not able to complete his degree and went on to study mathematics instead of medical sciences. It was during that era that his overall interests for the mathematics and other physical sciences started to develop. He was later appointed on different teaching assignments and his real contribution towards science started to emerge during the early part of the 17th century. At University of Padua he was able to develop different scientific theories and contributed not only towards the pure fundamental science but towards the applied science also. Galileo therefore is also famous for his contributions for inventing new technology and setting the foundations for technological innovations. (Hilliam) During that time he went on to make some of the most important discoveries and invented many equipment which allowed scientists to perform mathematical calculations relatively easily. It was also during that period that Galileo started to evolve as one of the most established scientists of his time. The conflict between the Galileo’s discoveries and scientific faith however, was believed to be in direct conflict with the established religious orthodox thought of that time. Over the period of time, Galileo through his hard work produced scientifically accurate theories however the unacceptability of his ideas despite the fact that Galileo was a religious person all through his life. It was also because of his religious beliefs that he could not take up his illegitimate daughters and asked them to spend most of their lives in church. (McNeese) He was accused of heresy and was later sent for inquisition which he survived only after retracting from his earlier position thus giving Church time to establish and re-establish its own authority. Scientists as Rebels It is argued that scientists always remained rebels as throughout the entire history of Science; scientists have uncovered or disc ussed issues that were considered as unacceptable as per the norms of the society. This tendency seems to continue till today where scientists, despite their innovation and creativity are still considered as agitators because what they discuss and achieve may take time to get the acceptance

Reaction Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

Reaction Paper - Essay Example Children are the party who suffer most when parents go through a divorce and have to share the children much like other assets in a marriage. There seems to be a link between divorce and delinquency and it is easy to connect the two although there may be deeper causes as well. Even in cases where divorce does not break up a family, a married couple can live with children in a hostile environment which continually causes stress to all those living in it. In such situations parents may show less control over their children and even show a lessened interest in their activities. Such situations are reported to lower the self esteem of the children involved and an increase in delinquent behavior. Interestingly enough, and it is possible to this with common experience, children who are treated positively with humor, support, physical and verbal affection react better than children who are treated with negative actions such as hostility, defensiveness, abuse, threats and maltreatment. The link between violence towards children e.g. spankings was seen to be established as further violence acted out by the children on others. It is interesting to note that physical punishment might be used if it is balanced with positive support for the children when they need it. This certainly makes sense because without the positive support and recognition, simple physical punishment for being ‘naughty’ would be nothing more than physical abuse of the child which certainly scars a child and could even prevent future normal functioning as an adult. This also creates a direct link to the level of supervisions that a child has from the parents as well as other concerned parties in the family. In a family where the child receives supervision and help from elders, the child can be assured of having a positive relationship with the parents. Common wisdom often states that working mothers

Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Analysis - Essay Example To begin with, it is not safe to love someone too much. It is neither safe to kiss the person one loves. Besides, it is dangerous to declare that one loves someone. The author mentions that everyone is a murderer. In this case, the girl is susceptible to murder. It is crucial for the girl not to venture outside at night. Furthermore, she should inform her mother about her whereabouts and the time she will come home from a night out. More essentially, such a person should not sleep so deeply. In the end, the author warns the girl to protect herself by carrying a knife, pepper spray, mace, and a gun. The author urges the teenage to spontaneous. In the last line, however, the story surprises the readers by saying that the teenage girl will die anyway. It is essential to highlight that this text does not read as a short story. Instead, it reads as an instruction manual that is indispensable for maneuvering a complex life. All the same, the story uses a mild flashback as the author conceals the subject in the second paragraph. Before that, the audience is not aware of the direction of the short story. It, therefore, occurs that the subject is a vulnerable person of whom the society poses danger from all fronts. The text thrives on contradictions. In the first paragraph, the protagonist receives a warning not to venture outside. The audience expects that once the subject receives a warning not to go on dates she may be allowed to go outside for other activities. In addition, the author warns the subject neither to go on dates with men who drive nor drive herself to date (Monson 64). In this case, the subject is torn between these two extremes of advice since she cannot choose. Besides, the author warns the girl to spend time neither with men friends nor with any friend at all. In the end, the girl will lack any friend. The author also tells the girl neither to stay home alone nor to venture out in public. The audience,

The Middle Eastern relations with world powers Essay

The Middle Eastern relations with world powers - Essay Example The relationship between the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and the United States of America begun nearly a century ago. This relationship is based on mutual respect and common interests – economic, political, technological and social. The Saudi-US friendship has been through numerous conflicts and crises, but, has grown from strength to strength. The origins of this relationship go back to the personal admiration King Abdulaziz bin Abdulrahman Al-Saud the Kingdom’s founder, held for President Woodrow Wilson. Oil has always been the major element of the Saudi-US relationship. The Kingdom supplies crude oil to the United States averaging 1.52 million barrels per day. Saudi Arabia received quite a number of US companies, which at first came to provide products and services for the oil industry but later entered into other ventures. When Saudi Arabia embarked on an ambitious development program in the industry, healthcare, education, and agriculture, it sought assistance from th e United States. U.S. experts and companies were closely involved in building up the Kingdom’s modern infrastructure, including schools, hospitals, roads, airports, seaports, industrial cities and telecommunications facilities. From that time, United States has partnered with Saudi Arabia in trade for more than fifty years. At present, America exports goods and services worth billions of dollars to the Kingdom, and Saudi Arabia in return exports a sizable portion of crude oil to the United States.... Oil has always been the major element of the Saudi-US relationship. The Kingdom supplies crude oil to the United States averaging 1.52 million barrels per day. Saudi Arabia received quite a number of US companies, which at first came to provide products and services for the oil industry but later entered into other ventures. When Saudi Arabia embarked on an ambitious development program in industry, health care, education and agriculture, it sought assistance from the United States. U.S. experts and companies were closely involved in building up the Kingdom’s modern infrastructure, including schools, hospitals, roads, airports, seaports, industrial cities and telecommunications facilities. From that time, United States has partnered with Saudi Arabia in trade for more than fifty years. At present, America exports goods and services worth billions of dollars to the Kingdom, and Saudi Arabia in return exports a sizable portion of crude oil to the United States. This commercial a nd economic association has resulted in rapid growth, in two way trade. It has increased from $56.2 million in 1950 to over $34 billion in 2005. Joint ventures between American and Saudi companies in fields such as energy, petrochemicals, manufacturing, finance and telecommunications have been formed. An example is Motiva, which is a joint venture involving Shell Oil Company and Saudi Refining Inc. It is one of the major refining and marketing companies in the United States. The US-Saudi relationship extends beyond oil, business and international politics to the people. Thousands of Americans live and work in Saudi Arabia. In turn, hundreds of

Just Culture Model and its Impact on Patient Safety as Part of the Research Paper

Just Culture Model and its Impact on Patient Safety as Part of the Roles of Clinic Nurse Specialist - Research Paper Example For nurses, they may also expand their knowledge by studying further and advance their career into clinical nurse specialists which may give them the chance to work at the management level in the clinical setting. They would have the knowledge on the healthcare systems and find ways on how to improve the efficiency of the healthcare organization through policies and culture that caters the growth and learning of the staff nurses. To improve the competencies of the clinical nurse specialists, just culture model may be used as framework. It gives importance to patient safety and increase in accountability among members of the healthcare organization. Just Culture Model and its Impact on Patient Safety as part of the Roles of Clinical Nurse Specialist Introduction The healthcare sector has been growing as the demands for health assistance is increasing. It is the sector that will never die out as people need the basic services or even the sophisticated care in that area for survival and to prolong life. People need health assistance when they are sick, injured or weakened. The need for healthcare has also been growing due to its primary importance to human survival. Whenever people get sick, they visit the hospital to get solutions for their health problems. Care is also provided in the hospital for patients with aggravated situations and helps them to recover. When people are sick, they are very fragile as their bodies are weakened. They need the support to totally bring back their healthy bodies. In the search for health assistance, various health staffs are prepared to assist the patients with their specific needs. From food intake to drug administration, the healthcare staffs are there to assist them. The professionals that assist the patients usually require long and intense training and license before they can perform their tasks to care for the patients. One of those health professionals is the nurse. Nurses have been important as they assist the doctors in the medical field to provide health assistance to patients in hospitals, at home or in the community. They are entrusted to help in the health restoration of the patients from their current weak condition to a healthy one. Nurses then may work on their own as they specialize on various roles or take part in a group in planning and evaluating the health care performance. They also attend trainings to further enhance their knowledge and skills to better support the health needs of the patients (Smith, 2004, p. 3). They are also updated with the current breakthroughs in their field of career through scholarly journals. Nurses may opt to specialize further through studies and further trainings to become clinical nurse specialists. As clinical nurse specialists (CNS), they must have more than the undergraduate degree in nursing and the education must be provided by accredited CNS institutions (Callara, 2008, p. 57). They are highly specialized to cater the specific needs of the patients that may depend upon the kind of diseases or illnesses the patients have. The CNS may also work on hospitals, houses, communities or specific units of the hospital such as emergency room and operating room. They also assist in surgeries or clinical procedures (Dreher et al., 2011, p. 78). In general, there are five duties each CNS may do like hospital work, management, education and instruction, research and

Bees Affected by Cell Phones Radiation Essay Example for Free

Bees Affected by Cell Phones Radiation Essay Bees are vanishing and cell phones are everywhere†¦there definitely could be a link. The Institute of Science in Society delivered a press release in April 2007 saying â€Å"one likely culprit of [CCD] is a new class of systemic pesticides, which are not only sprayed on crops, but also used universally to dress seeds in conventional agriculture, and can confuse and disorientate bees at very low concentrations† although â€Å"another candidate is a radiation from mobile phone base stations that has become nearly ubiquitous in Europe and North America where the bees are vanishing; this possibility is considerably strengthened by preliminary findings that bees fail to return to the hives if cordless phone base stations are placed in them. † The following experiment may prove that it is all about the wireless phones: Researchers at Landau University in Germany designed a simple experiment for students on the Environmental Science course. Eight mini-hives, each with approximately 8 000 bees were set up for the experiment. Four of them were equipped with a DECT (Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunication)-station at the bottom of the hive, and the other four without the DECT-station served as controls. At the entrance of each hive, a transparent plastic tube enabled the experimenters to watch the marked bees entering and leaving the hive, so they can be counted and their time of return after release recorded for a period of 45 minutes. The experimenters also studied building behavior by measuring the area of the honeycomb and its weight. In the course of the experiment, three colonies exposed to mobile phone radiation and one non-exposed control colony broke down. The total weights of the honeycombs in all colonies, including those at the time of breakdown were compared. The controls weighed 1 326g, while those exposed to the DECT-stations weighed only 1 045g, a difference of 21 percent. The total area of the honeycomb in the controls was 2 500, compared to just 2050 in the exposed hives. But it was the number of returning bees and their returning times that were vastly different. For two control hives, 16 out of 25 bees returned in 45 minutes. For the two microwave-exposed hives, however, no bees at all returned to one hive, and only six returned to the other. The article continues, saying: Clearly the present findings need to be taken much further, but their significance should not be downplayed for a number of reasons. The findings are compatible with evidence accumulating from investigations on many other species including humans, showing that mobile phone radiation is associated with a range of health hazards including cancers. Furthermore, bees are known to be extremely sensitive to magnetic and electromagnetic fields, and there have been many suggestions that they could be used as an indicator species for electromagnetic pollution.

Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) Technology

Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) Technology Investigation on the physical layer technologies employed in the GSM System Absyarie Syafiq Bin Shahrin Abstract Basically in this paper, we intend to give a rundown on GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) specifically on the technologies employed at the physical layer in the GSM system. The GSM system is a very interesting topic as it revolutionized the way we communicate and it is still being used till this day. It is actually the 2nd Generation (2G) wireless system as it uses digital instead of analog and it also deploys Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) that is implemented on multiple frequency subbands. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA). GMSK modulation and demodulation technique will also be discussed together with how it works and what their advantages/disadvantages are. The problems with ISI (Intersymbol Interference) in GSM systems will also be addressed together with how to mitigate ISI using channel equalization. With that, we will also give a simple explanation on how speech coding is accomplished in GSM transceivers. Keywords: Gaussian Pulse, GMSK, ISI, channel equalizer, ISI equalizer, speech coding I. Introduction GSM is a standard developed by the ETSI (Europe Telecommunication Standards Institute) to describe the protocols of the 2nd Generation (2G) communication technology used by mobile networks and cell phones. It was first launched in Finland with a data speed of up to 64kbps. The GSM is given the term 2G because it is something completely new compared to the first generation (1G) with the usage of digital signal signals instead of analog. It was designed from scratch with no backward compatibility with the previous 1G technology. Using 124 channels per cell, it can accommodate up to 8 users by using a combination of TDMA and FDD scheme [1], though some of its channels are used for control signals. It also introduces the SIM (Subscriber identity module) card which allows for roaming calls. At first, it was only designed for operation in the 900 MHz band but later it was adapted for 1800Mhz. GSM is a very popular standard used today with over 90% market share, with availability in over 21 9 countries and territories worldwide. Originally the GSM was developed with the intention that it will replace the first generation analog networks by having digital, circuit-switched networks which are optimized for full-duplex voice telephony. However as time passes, the GSM system was further developed to include data communications by firstly having it on circuit-switched transport, and then changing it later to packet-switched transport via GPRS ( General Packet Radio Service) and EDGE ( Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution) . In GSM, Gaussian pulse shaping is used and Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) as a modulation/demodulation technique with a modulation index of 0.5 [2]. This modulation method however gives rise to inter symbol interference. Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) in the GSM system are usually caused by two factors; Multipath propagation and Bandlimited channels. An ISI equalizer is used to solve this problem by implementing the Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation (MLSE) via vertibri algorithm. To make things easier to understand, Figure 1 is attached to relate how the GSM system can relate to the OSI (Open System Interconnection) model. We will however, focus more on the Physical Layer of the GSM system. Figure 1: How the GSM is realized in the famous OSI model [7]. Pulse Shaping In digital telecommunications systems, we strive to achieve broad spread spectrum with significant low-frequency content. This in return, requires a lowpass channel that has a bandwidth sufficient enough to accommodate the essential frequency content in the data stream. Gaussian function fits this requirement perfectly. The speciality of this waveshape is that, the pulses rise and small smoothly until it settles to a value [14]. This is a valuable asset as it gives a solution to problems such as precursors, overshoot and ringing in a pulse signal [14]. This problems cause uncertainty to the actual value so it is very troublesome. Besides that, it also addresses the two required needs of communication systems which are band-limited channels and reduced Inter-symbol interference (ISI) by applying a Gaussian filter symbol-by-symbol. It is nearly impossible to get the perfect sinc spectrum in the time domain as the bandwidth needs to be infinity. We can only have an approximation or near the same sinc spectrum. ISI can also still happen if control is not exercised over the pulse shaping. Figure 2: An impulse response of a Gaussian Filter [15] In GSM, we apply Gaussian filtering for Gaussian Filtering Minimum Shift keying (GMSK) a modulation technique. Basically it is similar as the Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) but the data stream must first go through pulse shaping via Gaussian filter before being applied to the modulator. MSK is already a good modulation scheme as it possess constant envelope and maintains phase continuity. GMSK allows for reduced sideband power which results in the reducing of out-of-band interference between the signal carriers in adjacent frequency channels. The GMSK technique has an advantage of being able to carry data while still maintaining an efficient usage of spectrum. The reduce power in the GMSK is very useful especially for mobile phones as lower battery consumption is needed for operation [16]. The drawback of GMSK is that, it requires more modulation memory in the system and causes ISI. We have two ways to generate GMSK modulation. The most basic way is to apply Gaussian filter on the input signal and then apply a frequency modulator with a modulation index of 0.5 [2] [16]. The problem with this method is that it must have an exact modulation index of 0.5. In the real world, this is impossible as component tolerance drift can vary[16]. Figure: Flow chart of GMSK modulation using a Gaussian filter and Voltage controlled oscillator The second method is more realistic and widely used. This GMSK method uses the Quadrature (I-Q) modulator. The operation starts by having the Gaussian filtered data separated into two parts, in-phase I and quadrature phase (Q). The I and Q components will then be mixed up to the frequency of the RF carrier to have a modulated RF signal. This kind of modulator can maintain 0.5 modulation index without having any modifications. The performance of this quadruple modulation depends on the accurate creation of I and Q components. For demodulation, this scheme can be used in reverse [16]. X – mixer or multiplier LO – Local oscillator Figure 3: Block diagram of I-Q modulator Inter symbol interference and channel equalization ISI in the GSM system is mainly caused by multipath propagation. Multipath propagation is a result when signals arrive at different times (delay) because it is does not travel in line of sight (LOS). In reality, connection will never be in LOS all the time so the signals will go through different paths by being reflected or refracted from different objects to reach the destination. When the signals travel through multiple paths, they will arrive at different times depending on the route they used. It is also possible for reflected signals to overlap with the subsequent signals [13]. This in addition, results in distortion to the received signals because all the signals have different delay. This situation happens either from mobile station to base station or vice versa. Since the delay spread is more than the symbol time, frequency selective fading occurs. Figure 4: An example of multipath propagation Figure 5: ISI as a result of multipath distortion [13] To combat the problem with multipath propagation, we use and ISI equalizer. This equalization technique is based on the MLSE which uses the Viterbi Algorithm [3] [10]. Figure below shows the block diagram of the ISI equalizer. Figure 6: Block diagram on how ISI equalizer is used in GSM environment When the base station or the mobile station transmits a TDMA burst, not all of is user data. Instead, 26 bits are allocated for the training sequence and they are known by their receivers (either mobile station or base station). Each of the known sequence bits unique for a certain transmitter is unique for a certain transmitter and this sequence bits is also repeated in every transmission burst. The figure below shows the normal burst structure in the GSM burst. Figure 7: GSM Normal Burst Structure A channel estimator is needed because to perform MLSE, we require information on the CIR (Channel Impulse Response). The channel estimator will estimate the CIR for each of the bursts by comparing the transmitted bits with the received signal to produce he(t) [10]. Channel estimation in GSM uses Linear MMSE (Minimum mean square error) [11]. Since the match filter is in time domain, r(t) will be convoluted with the signal obtained from the channel estimation, he(t) to create a model signal Y(t). The output model signal obtained can then be used to estimate the transmitted bits based on the bits received by performing MLSE. The last process uses Viterbi Algorithm hence the process, Viterbi equalisation [2] [9]. Speech coding in GSM transceivers Speech is originally analog in nature and GSM is a digital system. In order to use the speech information, we need to run to a series of process known as speech processing. Figure shows how the speech processing is done in a GSM system. In speech coding, the GSM system has used a variety of ways to fit in 3.1 kHz audio into between 6.5 and 13 kbit/s. The first two codecs used was called Half Rate (5.8 kbit/s) and Full rate (13 kbit/s) [4]. Both of this codecs use LPC (Linear Prediction Function) where voice signals need to be digitized, and secured using encryption over a narrow voice channel. As time passes, the GSM system was further developed to use the Enhanced Full Rate (EFR) codec which is a 12.2 kbit/s codec and it uses a full-rate channel. Figure 8: Flow-diagram on GSM speech processing [8] Full rate speech coder is actually part of the Regular Pulse Excitation – Long Term Prediction (RPE-LTP) coders [4]. Firstly the speech encoder will take an input of 13 bit uniform PCM signal from either the audio part of the mobile station (MS) or the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) side by using 8 bit/A-law to 13 bit uniform PCM conversion. The encoded speech is then delivered to the channel coding function which will then produce an encoded block having 456 bits with a gross bit rate of 22.8 kbps [4] [5]. The remaining 9.8 kbps is used for error protection purposes. The reverse action is performed for decoding. When encoding, 160 frames in 1 sample is encoded to a block of 260 bits with a sampling rate of 8000 samples/s, hence the bitrate of 13kbps [5]. On the decoding part, 260 bits of encoded blocks is mapped back to the 160 frames output reconstructed speech sample. EFR (Enhanced Full Rate) is a newer version of the speech codec which uses ACELP (Algebraic Code Excited Linear Prediction) algorithm. The motivation for this development is because of the mediocre / poor quality of the GSM-Full Rate codec. This codec is a step-up from the previous FR because it provides speech quality equivalent or close to wireline telephony which uses 32 kbps ADPCM (Adaptive Pulse Code Modulation) [6]. This codec can provide wireline quality in both error and error-free conditions [6]. EFR which is also a form of traffic channel is bi-directional and can transmit both speech and data [9]. Figure 9: shows how error correction is done at layer 1 of the GSM air interface Conclusion All in all, this paper has helped me to better understand the GSM system and how it works in the physical layer. GSM has many sources including but not limited to, books, journals, application notes, lecture notes, documentation as well as survey papers. After reading from various sources, I learned to read efficiently and think critically as the papers written are quite hard and requires a meticulous reading to thoroughly understand what is being presented. I acquired basic research and development (RD) skills and technical writing skills after almost a month of heavy reading and research. How the physical layer in the GSM system works is also understood. The acquired signal must first be shaped through a Gaussian filter in the GMSK modulator. The Quadruple modulator scheme is used as it does not require modifications to maintain 0.5 modulation index. ISI in the GSM are mostly caused by multipath propagations in which gives frequency selective fading. Frequency selective fading happ ens when the delay time is spread because symbols arrive at different times. To address the problems with ISI, we need to have an ISI equalizer. ISI equalizer consists of many components such as match filter and MLSE by Viterbi algorithm. I also learned that we have two speech coding options; full rate speech coder and EFR. All this components are essential when building a GSM system. References [1] Guifen Gu, Guili Peng â€Å"The Survey of GSM Wireless Communication System† International Conference on Computer and Information Application (ICCIA) , 2010 [2] B. Baggini, L. Coppero, G. Gazzoli, L. Sforzini, F. Maloberti, G. Palmisano â€Å"Integrated Digital Modulator and Analog Front-End for GSM Digital Cellular Mobile Radio System, Proc. IEEE 1991 CICC vol. 31, pp.7.6.1{4, Mar. 1991. [3] M. Drutarovskà ½, â€Å"GSM Channel Equalization Algorithm – Modern DSP Coprocessor Approarch† Radioengineering Vol. 8, No 4, December 1999. [4] Besacier, L.; Grassi, S.; Dufaux, A; Ansorge, M.; Pellandini, F., GSM speech coding and speaker recognition,Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, 2000. ICASSP 00. Proceedings. 2000 IEEE International Conference on, vol.2, no., pp.II1085,II1088 vol.2, 2000 [5] www.etsi.org, â€Å"European digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 1); Speech Processing Functions; General Description (GSM 06.01)†, GTS 06.01 version 3.0.0, January 1991. [6] Jarvinen, K.; Vainio, J.; Kapanen, P.; Honkanen, T.; Haavisto, P.; Salami, R.; Laflamme, C.; Adoul, J.-P., GSM enhanced full rate speech codec, Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, 1997. ICASSP-97., 1997 IEEE International Conference on , vol.2, no., pp.771,774 vol.2, 21-24 Apr 1997 [7] â€Å"Fundamentals: Signalling at the Air-Interface† Rohde and Schwartz Training Center v1.0 [8] http://www.rfwireless-world.com/Tutorials/gsm-speech-processing.html [9] â€Å"GSM Air Interface Network Planning† Training Document, Nokia Networks Oy, Finland, Jan 2002 [10] Vipin Pathak,â€Å"MLSE BASED EQUALIZATION AND FADING CHANNEL MODELING FOR GSM† (Hughes Software systems, Delhi), pp. 100-104, 2003 [11] Manoj Bapat, Dov Levenglick, and Odi Dahan, â€Å"GSM Channel Equalization, Decoding, and SOVA on the MSC8126 Viterbi Coprocessor (VCOP)† Freescale Semiconductor Application Note, Rev.0, 2005 [12] Baltersee, J.; Fock, G.; Meyr, H.; Yiin, L., Linear MMSE channel estimation for GSM, Global Telecommunications Conference, 1999. GLOBECOM 99 , vol.5, no., pp.2523,2527 vol.5, 1999 [13] Kang, A. S., and Vishal Sharma. Pulse Shape Filtering in Wireless Communication-A Critical Analysis. Pulse 2, no. 3 (2011). [14] James R. Andrews, â€Å"Low-Pass Risetime Filters for Time Domain Applications†, Picosecond Pulse Labs, Application Note AN-7a, March 1999. [15] http://www.ni.com/white-paper/3876/en/ [16] http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/rf-technology-design/pm-phase-modulation/what-is-gmsk-gaussian-minimum-shift-keying-tutorial.php [17] Fred Kostedt, James C. Kemerling, â€Å"Practical GMSK Data Transmission†, MX.com, INC, Application Note GMSK, 1998.

AIDS :: Free AIDS Essays

The media is full of aids stories these days. Articles in different newspapers and magazines headline the death of celebrities, new aids tests, and controversies about who should be tested, promising advances in the research labs, and frustrating and tragic problems of coping with the disease using the treatments available today. Aids is not only pervading the newspapers and magazines, but the television fare as well, not only the news items and features, but also in dramas sitcoms and soap operas. Aids has become an impetuous monster that has wrapped up society in its terrible claws through the fears it has promoted, the people it has affected, the true reality of the disease and the consequences it has brought upon its prey. With all this media coverage, it seems as though aids is the number one health problem facing the world today. In opinion polls, this disease now rivals cancer and blindness as the health problem most people fear. The pervading of aids have prompted a reassessment of our beliefs and customs and have challenged our laws and social institutions (Mathews 21). At first glance, the statistics do not seem to support this heavy emphasis. The total of all the aids cases reported in the United States has continued to rise, reaching more than 160,000 by the end of 1990, and the number of aids cases worldwide is close to a third of a million (Hull 22). These numbers may seem impressive compared to the number of people who gather to watch a World Series game or the Super Bowl and in reality they are. Yet each year three-quarters of a million Americans die of heart disease and close to a half million die of cancer, while the total of aids related deaths in the United States in 1990 was about 30,000. In 1990, aids ranked 10 among our top leading causes of death. Worldwide, aids tolls are only a fraction of the 200 to 300 million new cases and 2 million deaths from malaria each year (Silverstein 47). Why all the attention to aids, then? It is just the latest media hype, playing on our emotions and needlessly building up our fears? There are several reasons why people have reacted so emotionally to aids. First of all, it is a new disease. Cancer, heart disease, and malaria have been killing people ever since there have been humans on earth, but scientists did not even find out about aids since 1981. AIDS :: Free AIDS Essays The media is full of aids stories these days. Articles in different newspapers and magazines headline the death of celebrities, new aids tests, and controversies about who should be tested, promising advances in the research labs, and frustrating and tragic problems of coping with the disease using the treatments available today. Aids is not only pervading the newspapers and magazines, but the television fare as well, not only the news items and features, but also in dramas sitcoms and soap operas. Aids has become an impetuous monster that has wrapped up society in its terrible claws through the fears it has promoted, the people it has affected, the true reality of the disease and the consequences it has brought upon its prey. With all this media coverage, it seems as though aids is the number one health problem facing the world today. In opinion polls, this disease now rivals cancer and blindness as the health problem most people fear. The pervading of aids have prompted a reassessment of our beliefs and customs and have challenged our laws and social institutions (Mathews 21). At first glance, the statistics do not seem to support this heavy emphasis. The total of all the aids cases reported in the United States has continued to rise, reaching more than 160,000 by the end of 1990, and the number of aids cases worldwide is close to a third of a million (Hull 22). These numbers may seem impressive compared to the number of people who gather to watch a World Series game or the Super Bowl and in reality they are. Yet each year three-quarters of a million Americans die of heart disease and close to a half million die of cancer, while the total of aids related deaths in the United States in 1990 was about 30,000. In 1990, aids ranked 10 among our top leading causes of death. Worldwide, aids tolls are only a fraction of the 200 to 300 million new cases and 2 million deaths from malaria each year (Silverstein 47). Why all the attention to aids, then? It is just the latest media hype, playing on our emotions and needlessly building up our fears? There are several reasons why people have reacted so emotionally to aids. First of all, it is a new disease. Cancer, heart disease, and malaria have been killing people ever since there have been humans on earth, but scientists did not even find out about aids since 1981.

Rebellion in Two Kinds by Amy Tan Essay -- Two Kinds Essays

Two Kinds In this story â€Å"Two kinds† by Amy Tan it shows the great expectations of a mother, who wishes for her child to be famous and a genius. The mother coming from a society that is very hard working and obedient trying to instill the upbringing she had I her life. The child Jing-mei is a typical example of a child rebelling against their mothers wishes no matter how hard the parental figure tries, the child wishes to perform things in their own way and use their own freewill and to do things in there own timely fashion. The mother moves to America after much heartache in China. She has lost everything as quoted â€Å"she had come here in 1949 after losing everything in China: her mother and father, her family home, her first husband, and two daughters, twin baby girls.† (pg 1218). She begins a new life in America raising Jing-mei how every parent raises their own child to become the best they can. She believes that moving to America that anything can be accomplished and uses Jing-mei to live that life through by making her watch certain television show. Shows that portray how famous people act and to see how child prodigies perform in front of audiences. Always testing her child with quizzes that became very hard as quoted â€Å" The tests got harder-multiplying numbers in my head, finding the queen of hearts in a deck of cards, trying to stand on my head without using my hands, predicting the daily Temperatures in Los Angelas, New York, and London.† (pg 1219). Afterwards the mother trades maid services for piano lessons and puts more pressure on Jing-mei to be this great child prodigy that will be very famous. Like any parent they have high expectations of their child or children to live a great life that is equally t... ...uld. They have been the one to comfort us when the world seemed to turn evil. They have been the one to love us when we needed it the most, by the end of the story the outlook on the pressures take a different turn. Jing-mei has matured from a girl into a woman and as a peace of offering, her mother offers to give her the piano the main object of adversity between the two of them. This offers her the realization that she has become herself on her own terms, even with all of this hardship. She also learns that with everything her mother pushed on her or made her do it was out of love to make Jing-mei have a better and more satisfying life than the one her mother had to go through. Works Cited Tan, Amy â€Å"Two Kinds† In The Harbrace Anthology of Literature. Fourth Edition. Edited by Jon C. Stott et al. Canada: Thomson Nelson, 2006 pg 1015-22

Having a child with a disability Essay -- essays research papers

When Andy was born I was the happiest woman on Earth. When I saw his beautiful face and his tiny body I cried, I will never forget that moment. We stayed in the hospital for three days. That first night back from the hospital Andy didn’t do anything but cry all night long. I did not know what to do, this was my first child, and I didn’t know how to calm him down. I called the Doctor and he explained to me that this was the normal behavior for a first born child, and he just needed to adjust to the new environment. I would give Andy his milk, change his diaper, hold him, sing to him, but nothing would stop Andy’s crying. We didn’t much sleep. That week my husband had to work so I had to deal with Andy by myself, which was frustrating. Finally after about a week Andy gave up some. His dad couldn’t even get close to him because he would start crying again, because Andy couldn’t be held or fed by anyone but me. I had to spend every minute of the day with him to the point that I had to put a mattress in his room so I could get some sleep. I slept in his room for a whole year. There weren’t a lot of changes in Andy’s behavior during that year. The Doctor didn’t know what was wrong with him, and I didn’t know what I was going to do. Taking care of Andy was a full time job for me. Ever since Andy was born my whole life style changed. My husband, Jack, started working long hours because he didn’t want to stay at home and deal with Andy. I couldn’t go out by myself or with my friends anymore. I had to take Andy with me everywhere I went. Basically, I didn’t have a social life anymore. My relationship with my husband was also going down the drain because we never spent any quality time together. My whole life was a big mess at that Cabarcas 2 point, but whenever I saw Andy’s face he made my heart smile. Andy was a year old and he didn’t talk much I got worried, but the Doctor told me to wait a few more months because boy’s take a little bit longer than girls to start talking, so I did. In despite of all the frustration and despair I always showed Andy a lot of love. My husband also realized that he was being selfish by leaving all the responsibility to me. He took some responsibility upon himself to take care of Andy so he could get closer to him. Andy was very aggressive sometimes and whenever his dad tried to touch him, he would get away from his dad and start run... ...ee and a half years. In the near future I want Andy to go to a specialized school for where he could learned more that what he already now until now. THE END I chose this disability because I have a friend who has an autistic child and I babysit for her sometimes. This child is a wonderful child I baby-sit him and his sister and the are so cute together I really love these kids. I don’t charge their mom any money to take care of them; I just like to spend time with them. Al l this kid likes is to go outside and play, and when he’s tired he just comes to me, takes my hand and shows me what he wants. He is talking a lot more now that what he did a year ago. He is a child that I admire because he has come such a long way and has overcome many obstacles. I really liked writing this Cabarcas 5 paper because I never put my self in that situation and it isn’t easy at all to deal with a disable child everyday of your life. That is a challenge that I don’t know if I’m ready to take. I was afraid to write this paper at the beginning because I was afraid that this could happen to me, but I leave everything in the hands of God. I say this because I’m pregnant now and anything could happen.

MANAGERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS PEOPLE Essay

The way in which managers approach the performance of their jobs and the behaviour they display towards subordinate staff is likely to be conditioned by predispositions about people, and human nature and work. Drawing on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs model (which is discussed in Chapter 12), McGregor put forward two suppositions about human nature and behaviour at work. He argues that the style of management adopted is a function of the manager’s attitudes towards people and assumptions about human nature and behaviour. The two suppositions are called Theory X and Theory Y, and are based on polar assumptions about people and work. Theory X assumptions about human nature Theory X represents the carrot-and-stick assumptions on which traditional organisations are based, and was widely accepted and practised before the development of the human relations approach. Its assumptions are that: the average person is lazy and has an inherent dislike of work; most people must be coerced, controlled, directed and threatened with punishment if the organisation is to achieve its objectives; the average person avoids responsibility, prefers to be directed, lacks ambition and values security most of all; and  motivation occurs only at the physiological and security levels. The central principle of Theory X is direction and control through a centralised system of organisation and the exercise of authority. McGregor questions whether the Theory X approach to human nature is correct, and the relevance today of management practices which are based upon it. Assumptions based on a Theory X approach, and the traditional use of rewards and sanctions exercised by the nature of the manager’s position and authority, are likely to result in an exploitative or authoritarian style of management. Theory Y assumptions about human nature At the other extreme to Theory X is Theory Y which represents the assumptions consistent with current research knowledge. The central principle of Theory Y is the integration of individual and organisational goals. Its assumptions are: for most people work is as natural as play or rest; people will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which they are committed; commitment to objectives is a function of rewards associated with their achievement; given the right conditions, the average worker can learn to accept and to seek responsibility; the capacity for creativity in solving organisational problems is distributed widely in the population; the intellectual potential of the average person is only partially utilised; and motivation occurs at the affiliation, esteem and self-actualisation levels as well as the physiological and security levels. McGregor implies that a Theory Y approach is the best way to elicit co-operation from members of an organisation. It is the task of management to create the conditions in which individuals may satisfy their motivational needs, and in which they achieve their own goals through meeting the goals of the organisation. McGregor develops an analysis of the implications of accepting Theory Y in regard to performance appraisal, administration of salaries and promotions, participation, staff–line relationships, leadership, management development and the managerial team. MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESS Managerial strategies Although Theory X and Theory Y are based on polar extremes and are an oversimplification, they do represent identifiable philosophies which influence managerial behaviour and strategies. For example, as Lord Sieff comments: Now and again it is necessary to criticize people, but rather than tick them off, provided you can leave them in no doubt as to what the issue is, I am sure it pays to avoid being censorious but try instead to appeal to the innate capacity for self-criticism. Whatever you do, avoid making a mountain out of a molehill. Most people have the potential to be self-motivating. They can best achieve their personal goals through self-direction of their efforts towards meeting the goals of the organisation. Broadening educational standards and changing social values mean that people today have wider expectations of the quality of working life, including opportunities for consultation and participation in decisions which affect them. Managers should develop practices based more on an accurate understanding of human behaviour and motivation. The Theory Y approach, however, is not a ‘soft’ option. In practice it is often difficult  to achieve successfully. It can be frustrating and time-consuming, and mistakes will occur. Since 1952 I’ve been stumbling around buildings and running primitive Theory Y departments, divisions, and finally one whole Theory Y company: Avis. In 1962, after thirteen years, Avis had never made a profit (except one year when they jiggled their depreciation rates). Three years later the company had grown internationally (not by acquisitions) from $30 million in sales to $75 million in sales, and had made successive annual profits of $1 million, $3 million, and $5 million. If I had anything to do with this, I ascribe it all to my application of Theory Y. And a faltering, stumbling, groping, mistake-ridden application it was. Robert Townsend6 Demands of the situation The two views of Theory X and Theory Y tend to represent extremes of the natural inclination of managers towards a particular style of behaviour. In practice, however, the actual style of management behaviour adopted will be influenced by the demands of the situation. Where the job offers a high degree of intrinsic satisfaction or involves a variety of tasks, an element of problem-solving and the exercise of initiative, or where output is difficult to measure in quantitative terms, an informal, participative approach would seem to be more effective. It is more likely to lead to a higher level of staff morale. In many cases this would apply to work of a scientific, technical or professional nature. Where commitment to the goals of the organisation is almost a prerequisite of membership, such as in certain voluntary or charity organisations, for example, then a Theory Y approach would clearly seem to be most appropriate. Use of a Theory X approach However, even if a manager has a basic belief in Theory Y assumptions there may be occasions when it is necessary, or more appropriate, to adopt a Theory X approach. When the nature of the job itself offers little intrinsic reward or limited opportunities to satisfy higher-level needs, a more dictatorial style of management might work best. Some jobs are designed narrowly, with highly predictable tasks, and output measured precisely. This is the case, for example, with many complex production processes in manufacturing firms. With these types of jobs a Theory X approach may be needed if an adequate level of performance is to be maintained. MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESS The cynic might describe efforts to turn Theory Y into practice as doing with difficulty what comes naturally to the Japanese. There, excellent managers apply principles of behaviour which translate perfectly into western language – and which have long been echoed in the progressive areas of the west. Yet you still encounter the old ostrich attitudes that caused western companies so much damage in the past: for instance, the argument that to emulate Japan is impossible because of its peculiar culture. But the famous national enthusiasm for good business and effective management isn’t simply a product of Japan’s culture. After all, sloppy western habits, like investing too little in productive capacity, new products, training, quality and marketing are hardly cultural – not unless bad business economics are built into the western mentality. Robert Heller 12 THE MANAGERIAL/LEADERSHIP GRID ® One means of describing and evaluating different styles of management is the Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid ® (see Figure 7.1). First published as the Managerial Grid in 1964, restated in 1978 and 198513 and republished in 1991 as the Leadership Grid,14 the Grid provides a basis for comparison of managerial styles in terms of two principal dimensions: concern for production; concern for people. Concern for production is the amount of emphasis which the manager places on accomplishing the tasks in hand, achieving a high level of production and getting results or profits. This is represented along the horizontal axis of the Grid. Concern for people is the amount of emphasis which the manager gives to subordinates and colleagues as individuals and to their needs and expectations. This is represented along the vertical axis of the Grid. Five basic combinations ‘Concern for’ is not how much concern, but indicates the character and strength of assumptions which underlie the manager’s own basic attitudes and style of management. The significant point is ‘how’ the manager expresses concern about production or about people. The four corners and the centre of the Grid provide five basic combinations of degree of concern for production coupled with degree of concern for people (see Figure 7.1(a)). the impoverished manager (1,1 rating), low concern for production and low concern for people; the authority–compliance manager (9,1 rating), high concern for production and low concern for people; the country club manager (1,9 rating), low concern for production and high concern for people; the middle-of-the-road manager (5,5 rating), moderate concern for production and moderate concern for people; and the team manager (9,9 rating), high concern for production and high concern for people. Managers with a 1,1 rating tend to be remote from their subordinates and believe in the minimum movement from their present position. They do as little as they can with production or with people. Too much attention to production will cause difficulties with staff and too much attention to the needs of staff will cause problems with production. Team management Thoughtful attention to the needs of people for satisfying relationships leads to a comfortable, friendly organisation atmosphere and work tempo. Concern for people Work accomplishment is from committed people; interdependence through a ‘common stake’ in organisation purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect. Middle-of-the-road management Adequate organisation performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get work out while maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level. Impoverished management Authority–compliance management Exertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustain organisation membership. Efficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of work in such a way that human elements interfere to a minimum degree. In Opportunistic management, people adapt and shift to any Grid style needed to gain the maximum advantage. Performance occurs according to a system of selfish gain. Effort is given only for an advantage or personal gain. 9+9: Paternalism/maternalism Reward and approval are bestowed to people in return for loyalty and obedience; failure to comply leads to punishment Figure 7.1   The Leadership Grid (Source: Blake, R. R. and McCanse, A. A. (1991) Leadership Dilemmas – Grid Solutions, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston (1991), Grid Figure, p. 29, Paternalism Figure, p. 30, Opportunism Figure, p. 31. Reproduced by permission of Grid International, Inc.) MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESS Managers with a 9,1 rating are autocratic. They tend to rely on a centralised system and the use of authority. Staff are regarded as a means of production and motivation is based on competition between people in order to get work done. If staff challenge an instruction or standard procedure they are likely to be viewed as unco-operative. The 1,9 rating managers believe that a contented staff will undertake what is required of them and achieve a reasonable level of output. Production is secondary to the avoidance of conflict and maintenance of harmony among the staff. Managers will seek to find compromises between staff and solutions acceptable to everyone. Although innovation may be encouraged, they tend to reject good ideas if likely to cause difficulties among the staff. The 5,5 rating is the middle-of-the-road management with the approach of ‘live and let live’ and a tendency to avoid the real issues. This style of  management is the ‘dampened pendulum’ with managers swinging between concern for production and concern for people. Under pressure, this style of management tends to become task management (9,1). Where this strains relations and causes resentment from staff, however, pressure is eased and managers adopt a compromise approach. If there is a swing too much the other way (towards 1,9) managers are likely to take a tighter and more hardened approach. Managers with a 9,9 rating believe in the integrating of the task needs and concern for people. They believe in creating a situation whereby people can satisfy their own needs by commitment to the objectives of the organisation. Managers will discuss problems with the staff, seek their ideas and give them freedom of action. Difficulties in working relationships will be handled by confronting staff directly and attempting to work out solutions with them. These five styles of management represent the extremes of the Grid. With a nine-point scale on each axis there is a total of 81 different ‘mixtures’ of concern for production and concern for people. Most people would come up with a score somewhere in an intermediary position on the Grid. Two additional grid styles 1991 edition of the Grid also covers two additional styles: opportunism and 9+9 paternalism/maternalism, which take account of the reaction of subordinates. In opportunistic management, organisational performance occurs according to a system of exchanges, whereby effort is given only for an equivalent measure of the same. People adapt to the situation to gain maximum advantage of it. (See Figure 7.1(b).) In 9+9 paternalistic/maternalistic management, reward and approval are granted to people in return for loyalty and obedience; and punishment is threatened for failure to comply (see Figure 7.1(c)). A summary of the seven basic combinations of the Grid is given in Table 7.1. FRAMEWORK FOR PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR The Managerial Grid provides a framework in which managers can identify, study and review their patterns of behaviour. Instead of viewing management styles as a dichotomy of ‘either/or’, Blake and Mouton claim that the Managerial Grid illustrates that the manager can gain the benefits of maximising, simultaneously, methods which are both production-oriented and people-oriented. The 9,9 position, although an ideal, is worth working for. Based on their experience of using the original Grid, Blake and Mouton give three reasons why it is important to consider which style of management is used to achieve production through people. THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER The 7-S organisational framework In order to get people to accept solutions, the manager needs continually to co-ordinate and balance in order to compromise conflicting values. The  leader creates excitement in work and develops choices that give substance to images that excite people. In their relationships with other people, managers maintain a low level of emotional involvement. Leaders have empathy with other people and give attention to what events and actions mean.  Managers see themselves more as conservators and regulators of the existing order of affairs with which they identify, and from which they gain rewards. Leaders work in, but do not belong to, the organisation. Their sense of identity does not depend upon membership or work roles and they search out opportunities for change. The differences between leadership and management have been applied by Watson to the 7-S organisational framework of: strategy, structure, systems, style, staff, skills and superordinate (or shared) goals. Watson suggests that whereas managers tend towards reliance on: strategy, structure, systems, leaders have an inherent inclination for utilisation of the ‘soft’ Ss of : style, staff, skills, and shared goals. Watson also suggests, although cautiously, that 7-S management could be seen as the province of leaders. Managers will not ordinarily be capable of achieving sufficient mastery of all seven factors to attain a consistently high level of organisational performance. Distinction between management and leadership Based on experience of management approaches in both commerce and the military, Hollingsworth questions how many managers consider themselves first and foremost as leaders, relegating ‘manager’ to their job title. He argues that commercial managers need to learn from the armed forces if they wish to be viewed as leaders. Having accepted that there are some links between management and leadership, Hollingsworth lists six ‘fundamental differences’. A manager administers – a leader innovates. A manager maintains – a leader develops. A manager focuses on systems and structure – a leader focuses on people. A manager relies on control – a leader inspires trust. A manager keeps an eye on the bottom line – a leader has an eye on the horizon. A manager does things right – a leader does the right thing. Not everyone would agree with this list. Robinson, for example, suggests that if the word ‘manager’ is replaced by ‘administrator’ then the lists works. However, whatever your view the list makes for a helpful basis for critical discussion on the nature of management and leadership.25 In Chapter 6 we discussed management as getting work done through the efforts of other people. To be an effective manager it is necessary to exercise the role of leadership. A common view is that the job of the manager requires the  ability of leadership CHAPTER 8 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP THE QUALITIES OR TRAITS APPROACH The first approach assumes that leaders are born and not made. Leadership consists of certain inherited characteristics, or personality traits, which distinguish leaders from their followers: the so-called Great Person theory of leadership. The qualities approach focuses attention on the man or woman in the job and not on the job itself. It suggests that attention is given to the selection of leaders rather than to training for leadership. For example, Drucker (writing originally in 1955) makes the point that: Leadership is of utmost importance. Indeed there is no substitute for it. But leadership cannot be created or promoted. It cannot be taught or learned. There have been many research studies into the common traits of leadership. However, attempts at identifying common personality, or physical and mental, characteristics of different ‘good’ or ‘successful’ leaders have met with little success.Investigations have identified lists of traits which tend to be overlapping, contradictory or with little correlation for most features. It is noticeable that ‘individuality’ or ‘originality’ usually features in the list of traits. This itself suggests that there is little in common between specific personality traits of different leaders. It is perhaps possible therefore to identify general characteristics of leadership ability, such as self-confidence, initiative, intelligence and belief in one’s actions, but research into this area has revealed little more than this. In a series of interviews with headhunters, and senior figures in industry and the city, Management Today came up with a list of Britain’s most powerful women in business. A conclusion from the list is that the ‘top 50 women do not fit any pattern. They wield the kind of power and influence that defies stereotypes.’ Limitations of the traits approach There are two further limitations with this approach. First, there is bound to be some subjective judgement in determining who is regarded as a ‘good’ or ‘successful’ leader. Second, the lists of possible traits tend to be very long and there is not always agreement on the most important. Even if it were possible to identify an agreed list of more specific qualities, this would provide little explanation of the nature of leadership. It would do little to help in the development and training of future leaders. Although there is still some interest in the qualities, or traits, approach, attention has been directed more to other approaches to leadership. The qualities or traits approach gives rise to the questions: whether leaders are born or made; and whether leadership is an art or a science. The important point, however, is that these are not mutually exclusive alternatives. Even if there are certain inborn qualities which make for a good leader, these natural talents need encouragement and development. Even if leadership is something of an art, it still requires the application of special skills and techniques. THE FUNCTIONAL (OR GROUP) APPROACH This approach to leadership focuses attention not on the personality of the leader, nor on the man or woman in the job, per se, but on the functions of leadership. Leadership is always present in any group engaged in a task. The functional approach views leadership in terms of how the leader’s behaviour affects, and is affected by, the group of followers. This approach concentrates on the nature of the group, the followers or subordinates. It focuses on the content of leadership. WORK MOTIVATION AND REWARDS Maslow’s hierarchy of needs model Once a lower need has been satisfied, it no longer acts as a strong motivator. The needs of the next higher level in the hierarchy demand satisfaction and become the motivating influence. Only unsatisfied needs motivate a person. Thus Maslow asserts that ‘a satisfied need is no longer a motivator’. Not necessarily a fixed order Although Maslow suggests that most people have these basic needs in about the order indicated, he also makes it clear that the hierarchy is not necessarily a fixed order. There will be a number of exceptions to the order indicated. For some people there will be a reversal of the hierarchy, for example: Self-esteem may seem to be more important than love to some people. This is the most common reversal of the hierarchy. It is often based on the belief that the person most loved is strong, confident or inspires respect. People seeking love try to put on a show of aggressive, confident behaviour. They  are not really seeking selfesteem as an end in itself but for the sake of love needs. For some innately creative people the drive for creativity and self-actualisation may arise despite lack of satisfaction of more basic needs. Higher-level needs may be lost in some people who will continue to be satisfied at lower levels only: for example, a person who has experienced chronic unemployment. Some people who have been deprived of love in early childhood may experience the permanent loss of love needs. A need which has continued to be satisfied over a long period of time may be undervalued. For example, people who have never suffered from chronic hunger may tend to underestimate its effects, and regard food as rather an unimportant thing. Where people are dominated by a higher-level need this may assume greater importance than more basic needs. People with high ideals or values may become martyrs and give up everything else for the sake of their beliefs. Maslow claims that the hierarchy is relatively universal among different cultures, but he recognises that there are differences in an individual’s motivational content in a particular culture. THE INDIVIDUAL Degrees of  satisfaction Maslow points out that a false impression may be given that a need must be satisfied fully before a subsequent need arises. He suggests that a more realistic description is in terms of decreasing percentages of satisfaction  along levels of the hierarchy. For example, arbitrary figures for the average person may be: satisfied 85 per cent in physiological needs; 70 per cent in safety needs; 50 per cent in love needs; 40 per cent in esteem needs; and 10 per cent in self-actualisation needs. There is a gradual emergence of a higher-level need as lower-level needs become more satisfied. The relative importance of these needs changes during the psychological development of the individual. Maslow subsequently modified his views by noting that satisfaction of self-actualisation needs by growth-motivated individuals can actually enhance these needs rather than reduce them. Furthermore, he accepted that some higher-level needs may still emerge after long deprivation of lowerlevel needs, rat her than only after their satisfaction. Evaluation of Maslow’s theory Based on Maslow’s theory, once lower-level needs have been satisfied (say at the physiological and safety levels) giving more of the same does not provide motivation. Individuals advance up the hierarchy as each lower-level need becomes satisfied. Therefore, to provide motivation for a change in behaviour, the manager must direct attention to the next higher level of needs (in this case, love or social needs) that seek satisfaction. Applications to the work situation However, there are a number of problems in relating Maslow’s theory to the work situation. These include the following: A useful basis  for evaluation People do not necessarily satisfy their needs, especially higher-level needs, just through the work situation. They satisfy them through other areas of their life as well. Therefore the manager would need to have a complete understanding of people’s private and social life, not just their behaviour at work. There is doubt about the time which elapses between the satisfaction of a lower-level need and the emergence of a higher-level need. Individual differences mean that people place different values on the same need. For example, some people prefer what they might see as the comparative safety of working in a bureaucratic organisation to a more highly paid and higher status position, but with less job security, in a different organisation. Some rewards or outcomes at work satisfy more than one need. Higher salary or promotion, for example, can be applied to all levels of the hierarchy. Even for people within the same level of the hierarchy, the motivating factors will not be the same. There are many different ways in which people may seek satisfaction of, for example, their esteem needs. Maslow viewed satisfaction as the main motivational outcome of behaviour. But job satisfaction does not necessarily lead to improved work performance. Although Maslow did not originally intend that the need hierarchy should necessarily be applied to the work situation, it still remains popular as a theory of motivation at work. Despite criticisms and doubts about its limitations, the theory has had a significant impact on management approaches to motivation and the design of organisations to meet individual needs. It is a convenient framework for viewing the different needs and expectations that people have, where they are in the hierarchy, and the different motivators that might be applied to people at different levels. The work of Maslow has drawn attention to a number of different motivators and stimulated study and research. The need hierarchy model provides a  useful base for the evaluation of motivation at work. For example, Steers and Porter suggest a list of general rewards and organisational factors used to satisfy different needs (see Table 12.1).29 WORK MOTIVATION AND REWARDS Applying Maslow’s need hierarchy Needs levels General rewards Organisational factors 1 Physiological Food, water, sex, sleep a. Pay b. Pleasant working conditions c. Cafeteria 2. Safety Safety, security, stability, protection a. Safe working conditions b. Company benefits c. Job security 3. Social Love, affection, belongingness a. Cohesive work group b. Friendly supervision c. Professional associations 4. Esteem Self-esteem, self-respect, prestige, status a. Social recognition b. Job title c. High status job d. Feedback from the job itself 5. Self-actualisation Growth, advancement, creativity a. Challenging job b. Opportunities for creativity c. Achievement in work d. Advancement in the organisation Saunders contends that despite the time that has elapsed, Maslow’s theory remains watertight.  When prehistoric man first took shelter in a cave and lit a fire, he was satisfying his lowest – physiological and safety needs. When a Buddhist achieves a state of nirvana, she is satisfying the fifth and highest – self-actualisation †¦The cave these days might be a three-bedroom semi with garden and off-street parking, but the fact remains that once we’ve got enough to feed, clothe and house our families money is a low-level motivator for most people. The dash for cash is soon replaced by the desire for recognition, status and ultimately (although Maslow reckoned that a lot of us never get this far) the need to express yourself through your work. Pyramid of employee commitment Revisiting and developing Maslow’s hierarchy, Stum looked at the dynamic between an individual and the organisation, and proposes a new employee/employer social contract that enables organisations to improve employee commitment and retention. The five levels of workforce needs hierarchy are shown in a ‘Performance Pyramid’. Safety/security – the need to feel physically and psychologically safe in the work environment for commitment to be possible; Rewards – the need for extrinsic rewards in compensation and benefits; Affiliation – the intrinsic need for a sense of belonging to the work team or organisation; Growth – addressing the need for positive individual and organisational change to drive commitment; Work/life harmony – the drive to achieve a sense of fulfilment in balancing work and life responsibilities.

Evaluate an International Expansion Strategy for Goya Essay

Goya, the largest Hispanic-owned company in the United States, has established itself as not just a popular brand of Hispanic food products but also has become the market’s standard of quality and competitiveness. Established in 1936 as an import company to supply the demand for authentic Mexican and Spanish cuisine, the company is now producing and developing its own products (Goya, 2007a). Despite the extensive competition from larger food manufacturing companies and the opening of American markets by European and South American suppliers, Goya has been able to maintain its market leadership and develop new products and markets (Goya Foods, 1999). One of the factors cited for the continued success of the company is its marketing strategies with the Latino community. Considering that the Hispanic community and consumers of Hispanic food products are expected to represent 25% of the United State’s retail food market by 2050, this competency is one that other companies would like to acquire for themselves (Hoffman, 2003, p. 5). The objective of this paper is to investigate the environmental marketing forces that Goya considers in developing its marketing strategies, how it characterizes different subgroups in its market and the merits of expanding its target market to non-Latino consumers. In doing so, the paper will be able to understand the perspectives and insights that Goya has used and has become instrumental for its success (Riell, 2007). Environmental Forces Prioritized Among the six environmental forces discussed, natural, technological, political and legal, economic, competitive, and socio-cultural, the last three that are considered the most in Goya’s marketing strategy. Though the other factors are also considered, they figure more significantly in the company’s corporate and operation strategies (Demetrakakes, 2003). Though they do not directly relate to the company’s marketing strategy, it should also be recognized that they can impact the market effectiveness of the company. Thus, Goya considers all of these environmental forces as important factors to consider (Hoffman, 2003). Economic Forces Economic forces are important to the company’s marketing strategy because of its interest in retail markets. The case study of the company presented by Hoffman points out that since the Latino market will represent a substantial chunk of the consumer market, they will exert greater demand for products and may in fact shift the market towards buyers. At the same time, the size of the market will also increase its attractiveness to new players as well as marketing requirements (Goya, 2007a). Thus, it has been important for the company to establish itself as the premiere choice of consumers and to have a great sensitive to the market. According to Andy Unanue, CEO-in-waiting apparent, the company’s sensitivity to the shifts in purchasing power and the rate of entry of alternative products has been critical. Schiantarelli’s (2005) study indicates that the company’s sensitivity to macroeconomic factors in its major markets allows it to maximize economic growth areas. In doing so, the company is not only able to sell itself but is also able to establish itself at times where markets tend to liberal. Michael (19980 that the strategy of targeting these developing economies also allows the company to reposition its mature products or specialize markets for particular products. Johansson’s (2001) view suggests that economy-related strategies in marketing are critical in establishing long-term goals. Furthermore, the company has also endeavored to be sensitive to the economic development in Latin America which aside from being a major market also is important its supply chain. Latin American has been able to increase its supply power in world markets and have required higher prices for their goods. Furthermore, there has been significantly more mobility in capital and trade liberalization from the 1970’s (Bulmer-Thomas, 2006). This creates a challenge for the company to be more cost-effective and as well as market-oriented in its approach. The trend has been successful in controlling inflation rates and allowed significantly greater role of the middle class which, to Goya’s advantage, represents a significant bulk of its market (Hoffman, 2003). Competitive Forces Just as importantly, if not more urgent, is the increasing competitiveness in the market. As mentioned, the size of the market is attracting significant interest from new players. New players range from mainstream food manufacturing markets as well as direct competitors (Demetrakakes, 2003). Though the company has been able to maintain its position, it estimates the competition in the market to significantly increase. Goya sees the need to deal with the entry of larger competitors with more extensive distribution channels and prominent brands (Goya, 2007a). The entry of new competitors also can induce a price war which can reduce the company’s profit margin and limit Goya as a niche brand instead of its objective to be a mainstream one. Johansson (2001) points out that price wars have the potential of sifting advantage from producers and raise quality standards. Though this can create vitality in the market, if competitors saturate the market, particularly when the market does not expand proportionally, then operational costs can not be justified. Waltuck (2005) raises concerns regarding fragmentation of the market amongst the competitors which can make logistics of assessing and accessing markets more challenging. To respond to these concerns, Goya maintains communication and relations with its market, following closely market preference, demographics, and psychographics as well as migration movements. This also reinforces the brand’s image as part of the Latino culture and identity. The company’s belief is that â€Å"Latinos like buying things they consider their own, that are authentic† (Hoffman, 2003, p. 35). Thus the company does not only rely strictly on the actual quality of the product but is also able to maintain the perceived quality of the product which lies more beyond the control of the company. Another element that can be enhanced by the strategy is the reputation of the company, a confidence which extends beyond the sales performance Goya Maksimovic and Sheridan (2005) point out that this has also been increasingly important factors in the financial reputations of companies. In the case of Goya, one of the reason’s for its cooperate success is its hold on the market, a fact that creates significance confidence for investors as indicated by the company’s rank among Forbes Top 500 companies in the United States (Riell, 2007). Conversely, this rating also reinforces Goya as a premiere brand and creates pride among the Latino community. Socio-Cultural Forces Considering that the company’s imaging is anchored on its being a Latino product, socio-cultural factors can be seen as the most important consideration of the company’s marketing strategy. According to Johansson’s (2001) assessment of Latin markets, there is great attachment for family and cultural heritage that emphasizes religion, culture, community and tradition. Social and family gatherings are focused on reinforcing these elements and since these events involve the preparation of traditional cuisine, the demand for food ingredients is just as important. Goya’s view on Latin culture considers the development of identity, social skills and value systems and unique attributes associated within subgroups due to geography, ethnicity or nationality. A survey of Goya’s products shows that they are labeled using traditional names of products , emphasis on the traditional designs and effort is made to develop product variations to accommodate tastes (Demetrakakes, 2003). For example, salsa products are offered in several levels of spice intensity or chili combinations (Goya, 2007b). This accommodates for variances in preparation of products based on traditions within the Latino community. In addition to responding to indelible facets of the market, the company has also become adept in responding to socio-cultural changes within the community. Bulmer-Thomas (2006) points out that Latin American markets are changing significantly because of liberalization and diversification of its markets to which he attributes changes on social dynamics. One of the most significant changes is in the role of women. Traditional Hispanic households have been characterized as the primary homemakers thus most of the company’s products targeted women specifically in contrast to today, products are designed to be more non-gender specific. Another indication of the company’s sensitivity to the socio-cultural background of its clientele is in its efforts to educate non-Latino customers to Latin culture. Most products have anecdotal information regarding the origin, manner of preparation or cultural references of the product. This may also be an effort to reinforce Latin culture amongst on-traditional or mixed-heritage families. In recognition of the lifestyle and economic status of its market, Goya has also developed instant or quick preparation products. This was a response to surveys that most Latino families have shifted to become dual families as well as an effort to cater to casual dining markets. Another response to changes in lifestyle is the development of frozen and low-sodium products. The former has also contributed to extend the shelf of prepared and ready-to-eat products while the latter is a response to medical studies of the Latino population that indicated heart and kidney diseases as major health risks (Johansson, 2001). This type of valuation is again creates sensitivity and insight to their target market which reinforce the brand to the market (Johnson, 2006). Furthermore, this creates social significance to the products since they become intimately associated not only to the idea of Latino food but to Latino identity as a whole. Understanding Subgroups within the Latino Community Latino is considered an umbrella to encompass a number of nationalities characterized by Latin American or Spanish ancestry. According to Hoffman (2003, pp. 22-24) there is a need to understand various subgroups within the community to respond to nationalistic, ethnic or cultural identifications. The study of Bulmer-Thomas (2006) reinforces this idea by showing that individual national, ethnic and cultural experience has a direct relationship with market perceptions and performance. He uses the example of Brazil and Mexico as an example: European products are perceived better than American products in the former while the reverse is what is prevalent in Mexican markets. Thus, Goya can expect to contend with similar products from European products in Brazil and American brands in Mexico. Johnson (2006) points out that generalized identity constructions like in the use of the term â€Å"Latino† to refer to a segment of the population always creates conflicts with the recognition of multiculturalism. This can fail to recognize social dynamics within the community that have developed from historical conflicts or social positions. Aside from the obvious differences in nationality, social stratification is also prevalent as seen in social labels used to refer to ethnic minorities or those of mixed heritage still persist. In not recognizing these groups, there can only be limited recognition of the diversity within the Latino population. This also precludes the company from truly promoting Latino culture which it has claimed as one its social goals. Keeping diversity within the Latino community will also allow Goya to develop more products and diversify its markets. At the same time, this can be a means of maintaining cultural identity since homogeneity will only make the market more similar to mainstream psychographics. Though the company is targeting mainstream markets, maintain a traditional Latino market is also important because the community showcases Latino traditions, particularly cuisines. Challenges of Market Diversification Goya considers its foray to non-Latino markets. One of the major challenges for the company is to develop a collaborated marketing programs for both Latino and non-Latino markets. There may be a need to accommodate non-Latino market’s lack of familiarity or experience with the Latino traditions. Another constraint that has to be considered is the logistic challenges of supplying the demand of non-Latino markets. This will include not only supplying shelves with the actual products but also changing packaging, variants and modes of products. Other social factors also become an issue: since Latino communities are predominantly Catholics or Christians, there has been no significant need to develop halal-approved products, foods approved for Muslim consumption. So far, adaptation has been of non-Latino markets developing preference for Latino products. Despite this trend which is in the advantage of Goya, a Johansson (2001) point out the need to facilitate the behaviors since adaptations has its limitations. Accessing new markets also exposes Goya to greater competition. This can also be made difficult by the lack of experience in these markets or insights. Goya has stated that it rely its marketing strategies on close monitoring of social trends in its markets however, considering the scale of non-Latino markets, this will be prove more challenging to develop insights on buying preferences to demographic or psychographic characteristics (Besanko, 2005). Hoffman points out that overall globalization trends in societies and markets are highlighting the need for competitive advantage and at the same social sensitivity. There is no denying that has shown its cultural sensitivity, the next challenge is to develop sensitivity to non-Latino markets. Riell (2007) suggests further cross-over market testing of products. Similarly, Waltuck (2005) suggest the Goya should use both market and product strategies. Market strategies will accommodate for the dissimilarities with its traditional markets while product strategies will be a means to determine what products are already marketable to non-Latino markets. Conclusion The Goya Company has become an icon not only culturally but also commercially. In recent years, Latino communities worldwide have become more prominent in consumer markets because of rapid growth in Latin American countries as well as increasing social significance of Latino migrants particularly in the North America. Furthermore, interests in its traditions and culture have created new market opportunities of Latino products in mainstream markets. Interest in these products have proven themselves more than a fad but many non-Latino consumers have indicated their preference for Latino cuisine and food products. As public image and social responsibility become more of an issue for companies, Goya’s approach to business has lent them not only market presence but also social relevance. Its current objective to access mainstream markets is not surprising considering the current internet of non-Latino consumers of its products. However, there is also need to realize and respond to the demands of doing so will have for the company. Together with the change is scale, there is also a need to develop new competencies to maintain the strategic advantages that has established its success in Latino markets. In conclusion, Goya should assess the environmental forces of its new markets, particularly those that influence the economics, competitiveness and socio-cultural characteristics of the market. In doing so, the company will be able to prove that there is not only an existing demand for its products but that potential for them is not limited to culture, race, ethnicity or nationality.